Use of Extra-judicial Technical Surveillance in Criminal Decision-making: European Limitations and National Challenges

Andrei Zarafiu

Úplný text príspevku

Vydanie vedeckého časopisu číslo 2024-04
Čítať príspevok (PDF)

Typ dokumentu: časopis
Typ príspevku: štúdia
Jazyk príspevku: angličtina
Publikované: 31. 12. 2024
Formát súboru: PDF
Veľkosť súboru: 853 kB

In: Societas et iurisprudentia • 2024 • ročník 12 • číslo 4 • strany 36-74 • ISSN 1339-5467

Abstract: At the European level, the general rule for the gathering of evidence and the use of investigative methods involving the restriction of fundamental rights and freedoms is that these activities should only be carried out by bodies with judicial powers, only by means of judicial instruments and only in the framework of judicial proceedings. This judicial exclusivity is respected even when pro-active criminal investigations, as it ensures a mechanism of checks and balances on measures consisting in violations of individual rights. The case law of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg has consistently stated that even a severe threat to national security, such as acts of terrorism, or other risks of a global nature are not to be relied upon in order to override this form of protection and control. The present study aims to address the particular situation of technical surveillance carried out through specific intelligence gathering activities that restrict the exercise of fundamental rights or freedoms. Beyond the essential issue of the admissibility of the use of information obtained by officers (bodies) specializing in national security activities as evidence in criminal proceedings, the analysis aims to identify controversies and offer solutions on other issues of interest: the ability of non-judicial bodies to become involved in the conduct of criminal investigations, the effectiveness of the mechanisms for controlling these intrusive methods, the conformity with the European law of national regulations allowing such participation, the way in which information gathered by extrajudicial bodies can influence the criminal decision-making process. The analysis will be carried out from both the European and the national perspective, taking into account the particularities of the Romanian judicial system.

Key Words: Criminal Law; Criminal Procedure Law; Technical Surveillance; Criminal Decision-making; Romanian Intelligence Service; Evidence; Extrajudicial Bodies; the European Union; Romania.

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0932-9630

DOI: https://doi.org/10.31262/1339-5467/2024/12/4/36-74

URL: https://sei.iuridica.truni.sk/archive/2024/04/SEI-2024-04-Studies-Zarafiu-Andrei.pdf

Toto dielo je licencované pod Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

Bibliografická citácia

ZARAFIU, A. Use of Extra-judicial Technical Surveillance in Criminal Decision-making: European Limitations and National Challenges. Societas et iurisprudentia [online]. 2024, roč. 12, č. 4, s. 36-74 [cit. 2020-01-01]. ISSN 1339-5467. Dostupné na: https://doi.org/10.31262/1339-5467/2024/12/4/36-74.

Zoznam bibliografických odkazov

ASHWORTH, A. and L. ZEDNER. Preventive Justice [online]. 1^st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. 306 p. [cit. 2024-10-14]. ISBN 978-0-19-178082-0. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198712527.001.0001.

ASHWORTH, A. and M. REDMAYNE. The Criminal Process [online]. 4^th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. 471 p. [cit. 2024-10-14]. ISBN 978-0-19-181135-7. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/he/9780199547289.001.0001.

CASAGRAN, C. B. Surveillance in the European Union. In: D. GRAY and S. E. HENDERSON, eds. The Cambridge Handbook of Surveillance Law [online]. 1^st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017, pp. 642-658 [cit. 2024-10-14]. ISBN 978-1-316-48112-7. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316481127.028.

Case of Association for European Integration and Human Rights and Ekimdzhiev v. Bulgaria [2007-06-28]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2007, Application No. 62540/00.

Case of Blaj v. Romania [2014-04-08]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2014, Application No. 36259/04.

Case of Dragojević v. Croatia [2015-01-15]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2015, Application No. 68955/11.

Case of Dumitru Popescu v. Romania (No. 2) [2007-04-26]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2007, Application No. 71525/01.

Case of Huvig v. France [1990-04-24]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 1990, Application No. 11105/84.

Case of Iordachi and Others v. Moldova [2009-02-10]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2009, Application No. 25198/02.

Case of İrfan Güzel v. Turkey [2017-02-07]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2017, Application No. 35285/08.

Case of Klass and Others v. Germany [1978-09-06]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 1978, Application No. 5029/71.

Case of Kopp v. Switzerland [1998-03-25]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 1998, Application No. 23224/94.

Case of Kruslin v. France [1990-04-24]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 1990, Application No. 11801/85.

Case of Pruteanu v. Romania [2015-02-03]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2015, Application No. 30181/05.

Case of Roman Zakharov v. Russia [2015-12-04]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2015, Application No. 47143/06.

Case of Stana v. Romania [2018-12-04]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2018, Application No. 66640/12.

Case of Valenzuela Contreras v. Spain [1998-07-30]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 1998, Application No. 27671/95.

Case of Weber and Saravia v. Germany [2006-06-29]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2006, Application No. 54934/00.

Case of Xavier Da Silveira v. France [2010-01-21]. Judgement of the European Court of Human Rights, 2010, Application No. 43757/05.

Code of Criminal Procedure of Romania.

Constitution of Romania.

Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms [European Convention on Human Rights] [1950-11-04].

CRISTE, L. Unele consideraţii privind delegarea organelor judiciare [A Few Aspects Regarding the Delegation of Criminal Judicial Bodies]. Caiete de Drept Penal [Criminal Law Writings] [online]. 2023, no. 3, pp. 63-81 [cit. 2024-10-14]. ISSN 1841-6047. Available at: https://doi.org/10.24193/CDP.2023.3.4.

DABU, V. and V. RADU. Interceptions Legality during Preliminary Acts. Revista de Drept Penal [Penal Law Review]. 2012, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 1-14. ISSN 1223-0790.

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 21/2008 [2008-01-15].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 22/2018 [2018-01-18].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 26/2019 [2019-01-16].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 51/2016 [2016-02-16].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 55/2020 [2020-02-04].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 55/2022 [2022-02-16].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 91/2018 [2018-02-28].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 302/2017 [2017-05-04].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 685/2018 [2018-11-07].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 802/2018 [2018-12-06].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 1120/2008 [2008-10-16].

Decision of the Constitutional Court of Romania Ref. No. 1335/2008 [2008-12-09].

Decision of the High Court of Cassation and Justice of Romania Ref. No. 64/2023 [2023-10-02].

DELLA RAGIONE, L. Manuale di Diritto Processuale Penale. 5ª ed. Molfetta: Neldiritto, 2019. 1009 p. ISBN 978-88-327-0440-2.

DOBRESCU, P. Câte mandate de interceptare pe siguranță națională a emis ICCJ în ultimii 9 ani [How Many National Security Interception Warrants Has the HCCJ Issued in the Last 9 Years]. In: Libertatea [online]. 2018-06-12 [cit. 2024-10-14]. Available at: https://www.libertatea.ro/stiri/cate-mandate-de-interceptare-pe-siguranta-nationala-emis-iccj-ultimii-9-ani-2290478.

GLOVER, R. and P. MURPHY. Murphy on Evidence [online]. 13^th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. 738 p. [cit. 2024-10-14]. ISBN 978-0-19-966987-5. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/he/9780199669875.001.0001.

Government Emergency Ordinance of Romania Ref. No. 6/2016 [2016-03-11].

GRĂDINARU, S. Supravegherea tehnică în Noul Cod de procedură penală [Technical Supervision in the New Criminal Procedure Code]. 1-a ed. Bucureşti: C. H. Beck, 2014. 389 p. ISBN 978-606-18-0389-7.

LANGER, M. From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure. In: S. C. THAMAN, ed. World Plea Bargaining: Consensual Procedures and the Avoidance of the Full Criminal Trial. 1^st ed. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2010, pp. 3-80. ISBN 978-1-59460-573-4.

Law No. 14 of February 24, 1992, on the Organization and Functioning of the Romanian Intelligence Service [1992-02-24]. Official Journal of Romania, 1992, No. 33.

Law No. 51 of July 29, 1991, on the National Security of Romania [1991-07-29]. Official Journal of Romania, 2014, No. 190.

Law No. 182 of April 12, 2002, on the Protection of Classified Information [2002-04-12]. Official Journal of Romania, 2002, No. 248.

Law No. 201 of July 05, 2023, on amending and supplementing Law No. 135/2010 on the Code of Criminal Procedure, as well as on amending Other Normative Acts [2023-07-05]. Official Journal of Romania, 2023, No. 618.

Law No. 281 of June 24, 2003, on the amendment and completion of the Code of Criminal Procedure and Certain Special Laws [2003-06-24]. Official Journal of Romania, 2003, No. 468.

MAREŞ, M. Mandatele de supraveghere în domeniul securităţii naţionale, dincolo de statistică. Universul Juridic [online]. 2020-06-05 [cit. 2024-10-14]. Available at: https://www.universuljuridic.ro/mandatele-de-supraveghere-in-domeniul-securitatii-nationale-dincolo-de-statistica/.

MASON, S. and A. SHELDON. Proof: The Investigation, Collection and Examination of Digital Evidence. In: S. MASON, ed. Electronic Evidence. 2^nd ed. London: LexisNexis, 2010. 812 p. ISBN 978-1-4057-4912-1.

MÂȚĂ, D. C. Securitatea naţională: Concept: Reglementare: Mijloace de ocrotire [National Security: Concept: Regulation: Means of Protection]. 1-a ed. București: Hamangiu, 2016. 445 p. ISBN 978-606-27-0614-2.

MATEI, S. EXCLUSIV. Haos la Curtea Supremă de Justiţie pe mandatele de securitate naţională din România din 2021 [EXCLUSIVE. Chaos at the Supreme Court of Justice over Romania’s 2021 National Security Warrants]. In: Mediafax [online]. 2022-02-09 [cit. 2024-10-14]. Available at: https://www.mediafax.ro/justitie/exclusiv-haos-la-curtea-suprema-de-justitie-pe-mandatele-de-securitate-nationala-din-romania-din-2021-20512623.

MATEUȚ, G. Procedură penală: Partea generală [Criminal Procedure: General Part]. 1-a ed. Bucureşti: Universul Juridic, 2019. 1197 p. ISBN 978-606-39-0393-9.

NEGRU, A. I. Administrarea şi aprecierea probelor în procesul penal [Administration and Assessment of Evidence in Criminal Proceedings]. 1-a ed. București: Universul Juridic, 2022. 542 p. ISBN 978-606-39-0827-9.

OHM, P. The Surveillance Regulation Toolkit: Thinking beyond Probable Cause. In: D. GRAY and S. E. HENDERSON, eds. The Cambridge Handbook of Surveillance Law [online]. 1^st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017, pp. 491-508 [cit. 2024-10-14]. ISBN 978-1-316-48112-7. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316481127.022.

ÖLÇER, F. P. The European Court of Human Rights: The Fair Trial Analysis under Article 6 of the European Convention of Human Rights. In: S. C. THAMAN, ed. Exclusionary Rules in Comparative Law [online]. 1^st ed. Dordrecht: Springer, 2013, pp. 371-399 [cit. 2024-10-14]. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol. 20. ISBN 978-94-007-5348-8. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5348-8_16.

PAŞCA, V. Principiul egalităţii armelor în procesul penal român – O realitate sau o ficţiune? [The Principle of Equality of Arms in the Romanian Criminal Trial – Reality or Fiction?]. Revista Universul Juridic. 2016, no. 8, pp. 4-20. ISSN 2393-3445.

PRADEL, J. Procédure pénale. 16^e éd. Paris: Cujas, 2011. 933 p. Référence. ISBN 978-2-254-11410-8.

Recommendation 1402 (1999) on Control of Internal Security Services in Council of Europe Member States [1999-04-26].

Recommendation Rec(2005)10 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on “Special Investigation Techniques” in Relation to Serious Crimes Including Acts of Terrorism [2005-04-20].

Reply of the High Court of Cassation and Justice of Romania No. 81/EP [2021-12-28].

Reply of the High Court of Cassation and Justice of Romania No. 83/EP [2022-01-13].

Reply of the Public Prosecutor’s Office at the High Court of Cassation and Justice of Romania No. 1475/VIII-3/2021 [2021-12-13].

ROTARU, C. Tehnici speciale de supraveghere sau cercetare. Supravegherea tehnică – interceptarea convorbirilor şi comunicărilor [Special Techniques of Surveillance and Investigation. Technical Surveillance – Telephone Tapping]. Caiete de Drept Penal [Criminal Law Writings]. 2011, no. 1, pp. 11-26. ISSN 1841-6047.

SERELL, T. Preventive Policing, Surveillance, and European Counter-terrorism. Criminal Justice Ethics [online]. 2011, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 1-22 [cit. 2024-10-14]. ISSN 1937-5948. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/0731129x.2011.559057.

SUIAN, M. Metode speciale de supraveghere sau cercetare [Special Surveillance or Research Methods]. 1-a ed. Bucureşti: Solomon, 2021. 618 p. Pro Foro. ISBN 978-606-8892-82-5.

Surveillance by Intelligence Services: Fundamental Rights Safeguards and Remedies in the EU: Volume II: Field Perspectives and Legal Update [online]. 1^st ed. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2017. 164 p. [cit. 2024-10-14]. Freedoms. ISBN 978-92-9491-765-2. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2811/792946.

THOMAS-TAILLANDIER, D. Contribution à l’étude des procédures pénales dérogatoires [Contribution to the Study of Exceptional Criminal Proceedings]. 1^e éd. Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires d’Aix-Marseille, 2014. 423 p. Laboratoire de droit privé & de sciences criminelles. ISBN 978-2-7314-0932-1.

TUDORAN, M. V. Teoria și practica interceptărilor și înregistrărilor audio sau video judiciare: Abordare duală actualele și noile Cod penal și Cod de procedură penală [Theory and Practice of Judicial Interceptions and Audio or Video Recordings: Dual Approach to the Current and New Criminal Code and Criminal Procedure Code]. 1-a ed. București: Universul Juridic, 2012. 408 p. Biblioteca profesioniștilor. ISBN 978-973-127-872-8.

UDROIU, M. Sinteze de procedură penală: Partea generală: Volumul II [Criminal Procedure Summaries: General Part: Volume II]. 4-a ed. Bucureşti: C. H. Beck, 2023, pp. 803-1649. ISBN 978-606-18-1322-3.

UDROIU, M., R. SLĂVOIU and O. PREDESCU. Tehnici speciale de investigare în justiția penală [Special Investigation Techniques in Criminal Justice]. 1-a ed. Bucureşti: C. H. Beck, 2009. 225 p. ISBN 978-973-115-494-7.

WALDEN, I. Computer Crimes and Digital Investigations [online]. 1^st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. 491 p. [cit. 2024-10-14]. ISBN 978-1-383-04375-4. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199290987.001.0001.